Biochemical Analysis of Rice

Biochemical Analysis of Rice Rice (Oryza sativa (2n = 24) is a monocot plant and belongs to the Poaceae family and Oryzoidea subfamily. It occupies almost one-fifth of the total land area under world cereals. It covers about 148 million hectares annually that is roughly 11 percent of the world-cultivated land. It is life for more than half of humanity and in past, it shaped the cultures, diets, and economies of billions of people in the world (Farooq et al., 2009). More than 90 percent of the worlds rice is grown and consumed in Asia where 60 percent of the world population lives. The world major rice consuming countries are China, India, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines, Japan, Brazil, South Korea and USA that consume 135, 85, 39, 37, 26, 18, 10, 10, 9.7, 8.7, 8.1, 5.0 and 3.9 million metric ton, respectively (Meng et al., 2005; USDA, 2003-04). Biochemical and nutritional aspects of rice Rice is a major source of macro and micronutrients for human being. It feeds more than two billion people worldwide and is the number one staple food in Asia. It provides over 21 percent of the calorific needs of the worlds population and up to 76 percent of the calorific intake of the population of South East (SE) Asia (Fitzgerald et al., 2009). It is mostly consumed as a polished grain, which usually lacks its nutritional components such as minerals and vitamins 41 P. Lucca et al., Genetic engineering approaches to enrich rice with iron and vitamin A, Physiol. Plant. 126 (2006), pp. 291-303. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (7)( Lucca et al., 2006). Since the advent of molecular techniques, recently genetically modified rice verities have been developed, which contains more nutritional aspects like minerals and vitamins in endosperm (Vasconcelos et al., 2003; Paine et al., 2005; Fitzgerald et al., 2009). The major value-added nutritional protein c onstituents of the rice. Rice Position in Pakistan In Pakistan, besides its importance as a food crop, rice is the second important component of daily diet of bulk of the population after wheat. About 23% of the total foreign exchange earnings is shared by rice and thus called as Golden Grain of Pakistan (Shah et al., 1999). Around one third of total production is annually exported and two third is locally consumed to meet food needs. Rice is also used in dishes for special occasions (Sagar et al., 1988). Pakistan is the third largest rice exporting country. In Pakistan, rice occupies about 10% of the total cultivated area, accounts for 6.1% of value added in agriculture and 1.3% in gross domestic product. Production of rice during 2007-08 was estimated at 5,540 thousand tones, 10.4% higher than last year with 6.1% increase in yield per hectare (Anonymous, 2006). Area, production and yield of rice for the last 5 years are shown in Fig. 1. Varieties of basmati rice, sub-species of indica, are economically important due to the high quality of the grain and constitute an important source of revenue for two major rice-growing countries in Asia (Pakistan and India). The international market for basmati rice has always been higher than that of the moderate varieties. Pakistans annual rice export stands at about 2.5 million tons, which earn a total of 513.0 million dollars for the country (Anonymous, 1998). During the year 2005-2006 rice export was about one billion US$ (Bashir et al., 2007). Rice growing areas of Pakistan Depending upon the irrigation water availability, rice can be grown in any part of the country from sea level up to 2500m height. Pakistan has a climate and a potential in soil that permits the expectations of a most bright future for the productions of rice. Considering temperature difference, optimum sowing seasons and the varietals performance, rice growing areas can be divided in four ecological zones (Salim et al., 2003; Table-1.2). Rice is grown in all four provinces of Pakistan. However, the acreage under rice varies greatly from one province to another. The Punjab and Sindh are the major rice growing provinces with about 59% and 33%, respectively of the total rice in the country. The remaining 5% of the area is planted in Baulochistan and 3% in NWFP (Bhatti and Anwar, 1994). Despite the fact that its cultivated area is far smaller than wheat (more than 7.24 million), it has a great impact on national economy due to two reasons. Firstly, rice is the only crop which can be grown successfully in vast chunks of salt-ridden and water-logged areas where it facilitates not only the reclamation of land for the cultivation of other crops but also provide food. Secondly, superior quality basmati has a consistently increasing demand in the foreign countries. Consequently, there is a great scope for augmenting the foreign exchange earning by exporting it in bigger quantity. In view of these facts, it is highly desirable to increase the production and improve the quality of rice the quality is particularly more important from the trade view point, as it is instrument entail in increasing and then sustaining the demand in the foreign market in competition with other rising exporting countries. There in no denying the fact that purity is the very sole of quality. The impurities not only restrict the export trade, but also inflict losses to the growers, millers and the consumers alike. Therefore, these should possibly be minimized (Saleem et al., 2003). Major rice varieties in Pakistan More than 20 rice varieties have been released for general cultivation in Pakistan (Bashir et al., 2007). A general description of agronomical and physiochemical characteristics of these varieties. Importance of Basmati Rice in Pakistan There are thousands of rice varieties and landraces, which differ with respect to plant and grain characteristics. Of these, aromatic (Basmati) rice constitutes a small but special group that is regarded as best in grain quality, superior aroma and usually used for special dish preparation (Khush and dela Cruz, 2001). Quality of rice may be considered from the view point of size, shape and appearance of grain, milling quality and cooking properties (Dela Cruz and Khush, 2000). Pakistan is famous for the production and export of Basmati rice. The origin of the word Basmati can be trade to the word Basmati meaning earth recognized by its fragrance. The Hindi word Bas was derived from the Pakrit word BAS and has a Sanskrit root Vassy (Aroma), while Mati originated from Mayup (ingrained from the origin). In common usage Vas is pronounced as Bas and while combining Bas and Mayup, the later changed to Mati thus the word Basmati (Ahuja et al., 1995; Gupta, 1995). The fragrance of basmati rice is most closely associated with the presence of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (Buttery et al., 1983; Lorieux et al., 1996; Widjaja et al., 1996; Yoshihashi et al., 2002). Although many other compounds are also found in the headspace of fragrant rice varieties (Widjaja et al., 1996) possibly due to secondary effects related to the genetic background of the rice variety, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline is widely known to be the main cause of the distinctive basmati and jasmine fragrance. The desirability of fragrance has resulted in strong human preference and selection for this trait. Non-fragrant rice varieties contain very low levels of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, while the levels in fragrant genotypes are much higher (Widjaja et al., 1996). Basmati rice occupies a prime position in the Indian subcontinent and is becoming increasingly popular in Middle East, Europe, USA and even in non-traditional rice growing countries such as Australia (Bhasin, 2000). High-quality, traditional Basmati rice varieties command premium prices, more than three times that of non-Bamati rices in the world market due to its exquisite aroma, superfine grain characteristics and excellent cooking (extra elongation, soft and flaky texture) qualities (Bhasin, 2000; Singh et al., 2000a; Khush and dela Cruz, 2002). Basmati rice traditionally grown in the Himalayan foothills regions of Pakistan and India, and the name is traditionally associated with this region. Basmati rice is the result of centuries of selection and cultivation by farmers (Khush, 2000). Cultivation of basmati rice in mainly confined to the Kallar tract (Gujranwala, Sheikhupura and Sialkot districts) of Punjab province. Basmati rice always fetch a higher price in the domestic as well as in the international market due to their peculiar quality features such as pleasant aroma, fine grain, extreme grain elongation (7.6mm long) and soft texture on cooking. In spite of hard competition from India, Thailand and the United States, Pakistan enjoys a good position in the global trade of aromatic rice and every year earns a lot of foreign exchange (Akram and Sagar, 1997). Genetic Diversity in Rice Diversity among organisms is a result of variations in DNA sequences and of environmental effects. The diversity in crop varieties is essential for agricultural development for increasing food production, poverty alleviation and promoting economic growth. The available diversity in the germplasm also serves as an insurance against unknown future needs and conditions, thereby contributing to the stability of farming systems at local, national and global levels (Singh et al, 2000). In crop improvement program, genetic variability for agronomic traits as well as quality traits in almost all the crops is important, since this component is transmitted to the next generation (Singh, 1996). Study of genetic divergence among the plant materials is a vital tool to the plant breeders for an efficient choice of parents for plant improvement. Genetically diverse parents are likely to contribute desirable segregants and/or to produce high heterotic crosses. Parents identified on the basis of dive rgence for any breeding program would be more promising (Arunachalam, 1981). In early 1970s, public authorities felt the need that genetic resources should be collected, maintained and conserved, especial focus was on important food crops e.g wheat, rice, barley etc (Hawkes 1983; Bellon et al., 1998; Barry et al., 2007). This was the first official attempt to preserve genetic diversity. Currently different genetic diversity assessment methods including morphological, biochemical and molecular markers are available. Morphological Markers used to study genetic diversity Morphological evaluation is the oldest and considered as the first hand tool for detection of genetic variation in germplasm (Smith and Smith, 1989). It is cheap and convenient. It requires not any in depth knowledge at genomic or proteomic level. However, morphological markers are relatively less effective for genetic diversity analysis due to sensitivity to environmental influences and developmental stage of the plant (Werlemark et al., 1999). It takes long time, requires seasonal changes and quite laborious. The genetic variability for some of the traits needed for high yield performance and stress tolerance is limited in cultivated germplasm. This is because a small core of adapted progenitors has been used repeatedly in rice breeding programs such that the genetic base of rice has become narrow (Moncada et al. 2001; Hargrove et al. 1980; Dilday 1990). Introgression of genes from other rice species can provide genetic variation to improve rice and meet the challenges affecting ri ce production. Morphological traits including both qualitative and quantitative ones are used to evaluate genetic relationship among genotypes (Goodman 1972; Bajracharya et al., 2006). Fida et al. (1995) reported the evaluation of elite rice genotypes for agronomic traits during 1992 at NARC, Islamabad. All the genotypes possessed similar grain quality. Agronomic evaluation was used for screening of lines with desired performance by Akram et al. (1995), in field leading to the identification of varieties possessing longer and fine grains as donors for utilization in breeding programmes aimed for the improvement of grain length in Basmati rice. Iqbal et al. (2001) morphologically evaluated selected landraces for paddy yield and other important agronomic traits as a propose to select parents for hybridization program. All the landraces possessed some desirable agronomic traits so these proved effective in rice breeding programmes. Koutroubas et al. (2004) described variation in grain quality traits among some European rice lines. They concluded that these lines could be used as parents for introgression of desired traits into different rice cultivars grown in Europe. They also suggested that the interrelations among grain quality traits found in these lines could be useful to study the relationship among their grain quality components and for improving selection criteria. Nabeela et al. (2004) evaluated fifteen agronomical important traits in landrace genotypes of rice collected from various parts of Pakistan. A significant amount of genetic variation was displayed for most of the traits examined. The coefficient of variation was more than 10% for all the characters with exception of grain length. Seven accessions with best performance for individual character were identified, by exploiting their genetic potential. These genotypes can have a beneficial use in the breeding programs. Nepali rice landrace diversity was evaluated by Bajracharya et al. (2005) by usin g morphological traits as one of the parameter for selection. The genotypes varied only for few quantitative traits controlled by major genes; husk color, seed coat and panicle traits. Agronomic characterization also helped to decide which traits need to be improved for further crop improvements. Zaman et al. (2005) studied fifteen different rice varieties which showed that the different morphological characteristics such as the yield, tiller number per hill and filled grains per panicle did not contribute towards the total divergence. This suggested that the breeding improvement of these morphological characteristics have the little possibility. Little phenotypic variation at farm level was observed in Vietnamese rice by Fukuoka et al. 2006, which was considered to be the result of genetic drift and selection by the farmers, on farm conservation of the landraces of rice is considered to be under a force to decrease phenotypic diversity. Different phenotypic profiles contribute to t he conservation of regional genetic diversity of the landraces of rice. Veasey and colleagues (2008) investigated the genetic variability among different rice species from South in a greenhouse experiment. They showed a significant difference (p Keeping in view these benefits, morphological variation is a selection criterion for plant scientists among landrace genotypes. Though the environmental factors also play an important role in morphological variation but the knowledge of agro-morphological diversity and the distribution pattern of variation among crop species could be an invaluable aid in germplasm management and crop improvement strategies. Zeng et al. (2003) studied ecogeographic and genetic diversity based on morphological characters of rice landraces (Oryza sativa L.) in Yunnan, China. A great difference in ecological diversity index of rice resources between prefectures or counties in Yunnan province exists. Kayode et al. (2008) studied the relationship in geographical pattern and morphological variation of 880 rice landrace in CÃ ´te d’Ivoire for 13 agro-morphological characters. Result of the phenotypic frequency showed differential distribution of landraces with height, heading and maturity period whic h reflected the distribution pattern of different Oryza sativa landraces in CÃ ´te d’Ivoire that proved useful in germplasm management and breeding programs. The altitudinal distributions of grain length, grain width, grain length to width ratio and grain weight were evaluated by Siddiqui and coworkers in 2007. It was noticed that grain length decreased with the increase in altitude, while the grain width increased with the increase in altitude, resulting into a decrease in length to width ratio with the increase in altitude. Considering the change in altitude as a difference in habitat and environment, it can be assumed that Pakistan rice cultivars show a wide variation between and within locations. It may be concluded that the Pakistan rice genetic resources comprise of great diversity for grain morphological characteristics. The prevailing diversity for grain type (shape and size) and pericarp color has distinct correlation to its geographical distribution in terms of alt itude. Morpho-physiological traits are an important tool in hands of plant breeders for identification and purity testing of rice varieties. Sharief et al. (2005) investigated the genetic purity of four different rice varieties on the basis of morphological characteristics at their different growth stages. All of the varieties were identified by different morphological characteristics in terms of flag leaf area, grain color, seed width, number of tillers, time of heading, absent awing, slemma, palea pubescence, plant height, and culm diameter. Biochemical markers for analysis of diversity Seed proteins are very helpful in genetic diversity evaluation in cereal crops because the seeds of these crops have nutritional value. Glutelin, globulin and prolamin are important seed proteins in rice. Variation in these proteins at subunit level changes the quality of rice. Various tools were used to assess variability at peptide level. Biochemical markers have some disadvantages being tissue specific and affected by environmental and developmental changes. These disadvantages could be eliminated by the use of seed storage protein as they are conservative in nature and least effected by environmental changes. (Thanh et al., 2006) Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is useful method not only for revealing variations but also for identification of a variety in seed storage proteins. Four protein fractions (albumin, globulin, gliadin and glutenin) separated by SDS-PAGE as biochemical marker for evaluating polymorphism in three spelt wheat varieties. Very significant difference was observed at protein profile level in old cultivars and new breeding lines (Dvoracek and Curn 2003). Sengupta and Chattopadhyay (2000) identified twelve rice varieties on the basis of banding pattern obtained by SDS-PAGE. Aung et al. (2003) investigated 350 local rice cultivars from different regions of Myanmar. These were analyzed by using SDS-PAGE and IEF. Various cultivars differed in their SDS-PAGE profiles. Padmavathi et al. (2002) evaluated seven aromatic and five non-aromatic rice cultivars using SDS-PAGE. Two bands of 60.3 and 51.3KDa were polymorphic for their presence in both aromatic and non-aromatic genotypes and suggested that these polymorphic bands can be used as markers for verification of hybridity in crossing programme. Rehana et al. (2004) investigated twenty accessions of Pakistani rice germplasm for total seed protein by using SDS-PAGE, to determine the magnitude of genetic variation with respect to geographical distribution. Vari ation in protein banding pattern with respect to various geographical regions was evaluated and it was suggested that the inter-specific variations were more pronounced as compared to intra-specific variations. Variation in banding profile of globulin and glutelin was used as identification tool for differentiating coarse, fine and super fine rice cultivars by Thind and Sogi (2005). Jahan et al. (2005) studied protein diversity in 576 rice cultivars from Bangladesh and SDS-PAGE was used for separation. Thanh et al., 2006 used seed storage protein profiles of different varieties including rice for evaluation of genetic purity and variability. Molecular markers for diversity analysis Variation in a DNA sequence is known as DNA polymorphism. This quality of DNA can be used as a marker to assess diversity in the genome of any organism. An ideal DNA marker must have any of the following qualities: Highly polymorphic in nature, co-dominant inheritance, frequent occurrence in genome, selective neutral behaviour, easy access/availability, easy and fast assay, high reproducibility and easy exchange of data between laboratories (Joshi et al., 1999). DNA-based molecular markers/DNA fingerprinting can increase screening efficiency in breeding programs in a number of other ways. For example, they provide: the ability to screen in the seedling stage for traits that are expressed late in the life of a plant (i.e. grain or fruit quality, male sterility, photoperiod sensitivity), the ability to screen for traits that are extremely difficult, expensive, or time consuming to score phenotypically (i.e. root morphology, resistance to quarantined pests or to specific races or biotyp es of diseases or insects, tolerance for certain abiotic stresses such as drought, salt, or mineral deficiencies or toxicities), the ability to distinguish the homozygous versus heterozygous condition of many loci in a single generation without the need for progeny testing (since molecular markers are co-dominant), and the ability to perform simultaneous marker-aided selection for several characters at one time. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) Randomly-amplified polymorphic DNA markers (RAPD) are arbitrary sequence markers developed by Welsh and McClelland in 1991. This procedure detects nucleotide sequence polymorphisms in DNA by using a single primer of arbitrary nucleotide sequence. In this reaction, a single species of primer anneals to the genomic DNA at two different sites on complementary strands of DNA template. If these priming sites are within an amplifiable range of each other, a discrete DNA product is formed through thermocyclic amplification. On an average, each primer directs amplification of several discrete loci in the genome, making the assay useful for efficient screening of nucleotide sequence polymorphism between individuals. However, due to the stoichastic nature of DNA amplification with random sequence primers, it is important to optimize and maintain consistent reaction conditions for reproducible DNA amplification. They are dominant markers and hence have limitations in their use as markers for ma pping, which can be overcome to some extent by selecting those markers that are linked in coupling. RAPD assay has been used by several groups as efficient tools for identification of markers linked to agronomically important traits, which are introgressed during the development of near isogenic lines. though it is less popular due to problems such as poor reproducibility faint or fuzzy products, and difficulty in scoring bands, which lead to inappropriate inferences but it is still applied as markers in variability analysis and individual-specific genotyping has largely been carried out,. Raghunathachari et al. (2000) differentiated a set of 18 accessions from Indian scented rice by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. The RAPD analysis offered a rapid and reliable method for the estimation of variability between different accessions, which could be utilized by the breeders for further improvement of the scented rice genotypes. Porreca et al. (2001) reported confirmati on of genetic diversity among 28 rice cultivars, different for biometric traits, biological cycle and suitability to water limitation, using RAPD markers. High level of polymorphism was found between japonica and indica subspecies, whereas japonica cultivars with long grains (tropical) resulted to be genetically different from the short grains genotypes (temperate). Genetic relationships among indica and japonica cultivars and between tropical and temperate japonica was estimated. Variability among the varieties could lead to good heterotic combinations between japonica genotypes. Neeraja et al. (2002) determined genetic diversity in a set of landraces in comparison to a representative sample of improved rice varieties, using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Analysis of 36 accessions using 10 arbitrary decamer random primers, revealed 97.16% polymorphism. Similarity values among the landraces ranged from 0.58 to 0.89 indicating wide diversity. The landraces and improved vari eties formed separate clusters at 0.65 similarities suggesting that genetically distant landraces could be potentially valuable sources for enlarging and enriching the gene pool of improved varieties. Kwon et al. (2002) evaluated genetic divergence among 13 Tongil type rice cultivars and the relationship between genetic distance and hybrid performance in all possible nonreciprocal crosses between them assessed. These results indicate that GDs based on the microsatellite and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers may not be useful for predicting heterotic combinations in Tongil type rice and support the idea that the level of correlation between hybrid performance and genetic divergence is dependent on the germplasm used. Rabbani et al. (2008) evaluated the genetic polymorphism and identities of several Asian rice cultivars by using random amplified polymorphic DNA technique. On the basis of analysis performed on similarity matrix by using UPGMA, they grouped 40 cultivars in to three main clusters correspondent to aromatic, non-aromatic and japonica group, and a few independent cultivars. The cluster analysis placed most of the aromatic cultivars close to each other showing a high level of genetic relatedness. But the clusters produced by the aromatic cultivars were distinct from those of non-aromatic and japonica types. In this study, several improved and obsolete cultivars originating from diverse sources did not produce well defined distinct groups and indicated no association between the RAPD patterns and the geographic origin of the cultivars used. Amita et al. (2005) performed molecular and hybridization studies to investigate variation patterns in O. meridionalis by producing 119 polymorphic RAPD markers from 12, 10-mer operon primers. In addition, they detected 67 alleles by using 11 SSR primers. They showed speciation in O. meridionalis a with respect to its geographic distribution in northern Australia and Irian Jaya. Santhy et al. (2003) test ed application of RAPD markers for the identification of three rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids and their parental lines i.e. CMS female parent (A line), maintainer (B line) and pollen parent (R line), using 17 random oligonucleotides. It was possible to distinguish each of these genotypes, following a combination of selected primers. The results are discussed in view of its application for the purpose of Plant Variety Protection and for testing the genetic purity of A line and hybrid seed lots. Simple Sequence Repeats Analysis Microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are simple tandemly repeated di- to penta-nucleotide sequence motifs. Microsatellite data are also commonly used to assess genetic relationships between populations and individuals through the estimation of genetic distances (e.g. Beja-Pereira et al., 2003; Ibeagha-Awemu et al., 2004; Joshi et al., 2004; Sodhi et al., 2005; Tapio et al., 2005). The most commonly used measure of genetic distances is Neis standard genetic distance (DS) (Nei, 1972). Because of microsatellite abundance and even distribution in nuclear genomes of eukaryotes and some prokaryotic genomes, they offer valuable good source of polymorphism, which make them a promising class of genetic markers. The high levels of polymorphism performed by these markers; they are mostly referred as SSLP (simple sequence length polymorphism). Li et al. (2004) examined genetic diversity within and differentiation between the indica and japonica subspecies, including 22 accessions of indica and 35 of japonica rice by using five microsatellite loci from each chromosome having total 60 loci. Evaluating on chromosome-based comparisons it is concluded that nine chromosomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10 and 11) harboured higher levels of genetic diversity within the indica rice than the japonica rice. By applying chromosome-based comparisons they suggested that the extent of the indica-japonica differentiation varied substantially, ranging from 7.62% in chromosome 3 to 28.72% in chromosome 1. At 15 of the SSR loci, traditional and crossbred Basmati rice varieties amplified different alleles than those in the indica and/or japonica rice varieties. During this study the identified SSR markers, which can be used to differentiate among the traditional Basmati varieties and between traditional Basmati and other crossbred Basmati or long grain, non-Basmati rice varieties. Genetic relationships among rice genotypes as determined by UPGMA cluster analysis and three-dimensional s caling based on principal component analysis showed that the three traditional Basmati rice varieties are closely related and have varying degree of similarity with other crossbred Basmati rice varieties Priyanka et al. (2004). Amanda et al. (2004) classified 234 accessions of rice into five distinct groups corresponding to indica, aus, aromatic, temperate japonica, and tropical japonica rices using 169 microsatellite markers. Yunbi et al. (2004) evaluated diversity in 236 rice accessions by applying 113 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and 60 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci at DNA level. Higher value of polymorphism information contents (0.66) was recorded for SSR markers as compared to RFLP (0.36). A diverse subset of 31 rice cultivars was identified that embodied 95% of RFLP and 74% of SSR alleles. This subset was useful in developing core collections and an efficient source of genetic diversity for future crop improvement. Zhang et al. (2005) evaluated the poten tial of discriminate analysis (DA) to identify candidate markers linked with agronomic traits among inbred lines of rice (Oryza sativa L.). A sum of 218 lines originating from the US and Asia were planted in field plots of Texas. Data were collected for 12 economically important traits, and DNA profiles of each inbred line were produced using 60 SSR and 114 RFLP markers. Model-based methods revealed population structure among the lines. Associated marker alleles pointed to the same and different regions on the rice genetic map when compared to previous QTL mapping experiments. Results of the study suggested that candidate markers associated with agronomic traits can be readily detected among inbred lines of rice. Bajracharya et al. (2005) estimated genetic diversity of rice landraces collected from different locations of Nepal based on agro-morphological variability and microsatellite marker polymorphism. They 39 microsatellite (simple sequence repeats, SSR) markers among these coll ected accessions by using 10 different names. After studying all these qualitative and quantitative traits they concluded that these accessions showed low morphological diversity having an average Shannon Weaver diversity index of 0.23. Among the studied traits only 16 morphological traits showed significant variation among the accessions. Discriminant function analysis showed that only 36% of accessions could be clustered according to name by morphological traits. Only one SSR locus was polymorphic, distinguishing only one accession. Genetic differences among new rice lines (NERICA), developed by cross breeding of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) with high yielding Asian rice (Oryza sativa subsp. japonica), were explored by using simple sequence repeat markers (Semagn et al. 2006). Michael et al. (2006) characterized 330 rice accessions, including 246 Indonesian landraces and 63 Indonesian improved cultivars, by studying 30 fluorescently-labeled microsatellite markers. By using gene tic diversity analysis they characterized the Indonesian landraces as 68% indica and 32% tropical japonica, having an indica gene diversity of 0.53 and a tropical japonica gene diversity of 0.56

The Effect Of Race On Poverty

The Effect Of Race On Poverty Racism has existed throughout human history, and it continues to represent significant problems for many people in the United States today. Racism is the belief that ones race is primarily, the determining factor that reflects human traits and capacity. Racist ideology generally supports the premise that a particular race is either superior or inferior to another, and that a persons social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. The distinction of racial differences, gives way to the belief of an inherent superiority of a particular race(s), while simultaneously ordering other races in a hierarchy. Institutional racism causes large numbers of individuals, who are deemed inferior, to be denied even basic rights or benefits befitting mankind. Conversely, the group that is deemed superior has, historically, been elevated to positions that allow them to enjoy preferential treatment over the so called inferior group(s). Why do people from one so cial group oppress and discriminate against people from other social groups; and why is it so difficult to eliminate? The purpose of this study considers if racial discrimination continues to represent a significant problem for African Americans and other ethnic minorities in the U.S. Some race theorist feel compelled to assert the rather pessimistic view that racism is permanent, and even the use of politics and policy will not curtail the development of racial distinction and antagonisms. Racial inequality has become an enduring, deeply regimented means of knowing and organizing the social world, and thus it is unlikely to be completely eliminated. The Black experience in the United States has enriched the fabric of American history and society in a myriad of ways, many of which have only recently been recognized. However, the overarching theme of Black and other minority group experience has been one of misery, exploitation, inequality, and discrimination. It is to this end, that those who wish to understand the minority experience in America ask the following question: Are minorities making progress in the United States? Recent battles regarding civil rights and race discrimination in the United States were fought on two fronts legal, and the publics perception of race. Legal fronts consisted of lawsuits and amended legislation prompted institutions such as schools, banks, and government agencies to lessen race discrimination. Brown vs. the board of education, the civil rights act of 1964/65, and other subsequent battles brought race discrimination to the attention of the American public. The former front involves the publics perception of race. Henry and Sears (2002) argue that public sentiment concerning African Americans is governed by a psychological blend of negative feelings and conservative values, particularly the belief that African Americans violate cherished American values. The perception of African Americans is rooted in an abstract system of early learned moral values and ideas that typically view them as social misfits. Racial conflict has plagued the United States from its inception, in particular it has been primarily driven by racial prejudice of African-American (Allport, 1979). While overt forms of racial discrimination, such as Jim crow segregation has all been eliminated in the United States, and whites opinions regarding racial issues have become more liberal; nevertheless, racial discrimination remains a significant difficulty for many ethnic minority groups to contend with in the United States. Moreover, recent research shows that racism has evolved from these overt forms of Jim Crow segregation (older belief systems which incorporated social distance between the races). One form of research has developed around the basic idea that new forms of racism has taken root in America, is the symbolic racism theory (Sears, 1988). According to Kender and Sears (1981) symbolic racism is commonly described as a coherent belief system which supports concepts that, racial discrimination is no longer a valid point of contention for African Americans, and that their disadvantage stems from personal irresponsibility, and thus their continual demand for equal treatment is not valid. Proponents of liberal optimism, on the other hand, contend that viable solutions to our nations race problems are possible. Robert parks (1950) clearly articulate key concepts of a race relation cycle. Parks argues that race relations develop in a four cycle stage: contact, conflict, accommodation, and assimilation. The first stage occurs when two or more different races of people come together, and they are obliged to interact with each other. Competing for scarce resources, they fall into conflict, which eventually gives way to accommodation, where a stable but antagonist social order fosters a social hierarchy. Finally, Parks asserts that accommodation is attained when different races assimilate through a process of cultural and physical merging. The end result of such a merger is the development of one homogenous race, where class supersedes race as the primary focal point of social distinction. Parks ascertain that race relations invariably pass through the previously mention fo ur stages, and that the present location of particular race of people, offers strong evidence to suggest not only their past but also the future path that a particular race of people will encounter. Our society, like many others throughout the world, is organized by powerful dynamics that are often very difficult to interrupt. Privilege is a predictable precursor for such things as race distinction, because the privileged group must distinguish itself from other groups. Distinctions based on race may not always be carried out with malicious intent, however, to suggest that the effects of such characterizations are inconsequential, definitely deserves examination. But, how are we to understand the realities that both produce such distinctions and the ensuing consequences that they invariably produce? Do we view them as purely accidental, or as oddities that simply seem to happen? Or is race, in fact, reflective of designed dynamics that are sown into the very fabric of our society? III. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS Does race affect income equality? In theory, income does affect the quality of life, in terms of having resources to insure ones success. The concept of income level should demonstrate rather racism remains a significant barrier for the economic advancement of African Americans and other minorities in the U.S. The issues here that are under consideration do not dispute the fact that the position of African Americans and other minorities has changed in the last generation; rather it is the less traceable issue of whether these changes can be summed-up as measurable improvement of economic equality, and consequently an improvement in the quality of life of minorities in the United States. The social economic status of Caucasians (the comparison group), African Americans, and other minorities African Americans and other minorities will be compared to discovery which group, on average, has a total family income below 25, 000 dollars. The context of relative total family income level of, individuals in a particular race, demonstrates to what degree, if any, racial equality has been achieved by considering which group is more likely to live in poverty. IV. DATA AND VARIABLES In order to empirically examine rather race remains a significant barrier for the equality of ethnic minorities in the United States, this researcher uses General Social Services (GSS) data. The GSS were designed as part of a data diffusion project in 1972. The GSS replicated questionnaire items and wording in order to facilitate time trend studies. This data collection includes a cumulative file that merges all data collected as part of the General Social Services Surveys from 1972 to 2004. The 2004 survey was composed of permanent questions that appeared on two out of every three surveys and a small number of occasional questions that occurred in a single study. The DEPENDENT VARIABLE Income Level A comparative level of income between Caucasians (the comparison group), African Americans and other ethnic minorities over time will demonstrate rather racism remains a central hindrance to the advancement of minorities in the United States. That is, I hypothesis that Caucasians will show a higher mean income from that of minorities and, therefore, a lowered propensity for having a total family income of 25,000 dollars or less. If racial equality is present between races, then, we can expect to see a somewhat uniform distribution of income between the different ethnic groups, and an average number of people in different races, living in poverty. However, if we see a significant difference between mean incomes of different ethnic groups, then, we assume that there is no real equality. The continuous variable income was converted to a dichotomous variable (because of a skewed distribution of income) where if respondents total family income is 25,000 or less, then they are considered t o live in poverty; conversely, if the respondents total family income was above 25,000 dollars per year, then they are coded as not being in poverty. Income level is measured by the GSS variable (VAR: INCOME). Respondents were asked, In which of these groups did your total family income, from all sources, fall last year before taxes that is? A fifteen point response category was used to capture respondents answers: under $1,000; $1000 to 1,999; $2,000 to 2,999; $3,000 to 3,999; $4,000 to 4,999; 5,000 to 5,999; $6,000 to 6,999; $7,000 to 7,999; $8,000 to 8,999; $9,000 to 9,999; $10,000 to 14,999; $15,000 to 19,999; $20,000 to 24,000; $25,000 or over; refused; dont know, no answer; not applicable. The variable INCOME was converted into a dichotomous variable: 1) 1= living in poverty (income $25,000 or less) 2) 0= not living in poverty (income above $25,000). THE KEY INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Race The mere distinction of individuals by race invariably gives way to the belief that slight biological differences between certain groups of people predetermines the worth, intelligence, value, and other aspects of a persons being. As a consequence, race distinction, is typically followed by the formation of preset stereotypes regarding a particular group of people, and the creation of a racial hierarchy. Distinction by race has been the catalyst, throughout mans history, for wars as well as hate-crimes, and it has caused untold human suffering not only in the U.S., but indeed, throughout the entire world. It is this authors hypothesis that race continues to plague minorities in the U.S. Race is measured by the GSS variable (VAR: RACE). Respondents were asked, What race do you consider yourself? Respondents were asked to select their appropriate race from a three-point scale: White, Black, or other (specify). The key independent variable RACE was dichotomized as follows: 1) Black or not, and 2) Other race or not. THE INDENENDENT VARIABLES: The independent variables in this study are: Age, Sex, Education, religion, political affiliation, and years of education and training. Age It is my hypothesis that the working age of an individual will be positively correlated with a higher mean income. That is, when people begin to work they will often start at the low end of the pay scale in their respective occupations. However, as they gain more experience on the job, their worth to their employer increases, and thus they can demand higher incomes. Age is measured by the GSS variable (VAR: AGE). Respondents were asked to indicate their age by selection from the approximate eight point choice category. The categories are listed as follows: 10-19 years of age (y.o.a.), 20-29 (y.o.a.), 30-39 (y.o.a.), 40-49 (y.o.a.), 50-59 (y.o.a.), 60-69 (y.o.a), 70-79 (y.o.a), 80 or over, and No answer/dont know. REMARKS: Respondents age: Data has been recoded into actual age in cols. 92 and 93. See Appendix D, and Appendix E. Age distribution, for the detailed response. The distribution for the first digit, col. 92 is given below. See Appendix N for changes. SEX Not only is income level stratified along racial dement ions, but, also by gender. Traditionally, the U.S. has always exercised patriarchal domination, and, as such men have characteristically held more prestigious employment positions that typically pay more. Therefore, I hypothesize that the mean income of men will be higher than that of women. Gender is measured the GSS variable (VAR: SEX). Code respondents sex, they were asked to indicate their gender by using the following two point response category: Male, Female; Male=1, female=2. Education Level I hypothesize that higher individual levels of education will be positively correlated with higher a mean income. Individuals who have higher levels of education will be more valuable to their employers because of special training, job skills, and knowledge allows them to perform specialized tasks. Education is measured by the GSS variable (VAR: DEGREE). Respondents were asked, What is your highest level of education? Respondents were asked to select their appropriate education level from a six-point scale which is listed as follows: 1) Less than high school, 2) High school, 3) Associate/ junior college, 4) Bachelors, 5) Graduate, and 6) Dont know. Religion Raised with I hypothesize those individuals who were raised in families that regularly attended religious services as children will have a stronger work ethic, than those who did not, consequently, those individuals who were raised with religion will possess a higher mean income than those respondents who were not raised in a family that attended religious services. Religion is measured by using the GSS variable (VAR: RELIG16). Respondents were asked, In what religion were you raised? Respondents were asked to select the religion they were raised in by making a selection from the following five-point choice selection category: Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, none, other (specify religion, and/or church denomination. The variable RELIGION was dichotomized as follows: 1) Jewish or not, 2) Catholic or not, 3) Protestant or not 4) Other religion or not, and None or not raised with any religion, is the comparison group. Political Affiliation I hypothesize those respondents who are republicans (who typically hold more traditional values) will be more positively correlated with higher mean income levels than those of other political affiliations. Political affiliation is measured using the GSS Variable (VAR: PARDYID). Respondents were asked, Generally speaking do you usually think of yourself as Republican, Democrat, Independent, or what? The variable PARDYID was dicothomised as follows: 1) Democrat or not 2) Independent or not 3) Other political party or not. Hypothesis 1: Is there any significant gap in the income of African Americans and other minorities compared to those of Caucasians in the United States, and what ethnic minorities are more likely to live under the poverty level? If we find that a particular ethnic group is more likely to live in poverty compared to Whites, then, one might conclude that racism continues to remain a significant obstacle for the economic advancement of the aforementioned minority groups. In addition to race, this study will also consider the impact of age, gender, religion, political affiliation, educational attainment, and the number of years spent obtaining formal education and training, with respect to relative income and those who live in poverty. Poverty is defined as the total family income level of respondents that falls at or under 25,000 annually. V. THE FINDINGS Frequency Distribution of the D.V. and the Key I.V. The main hypothesis of this paper singles out the dependent variable as total family annual income (VAR: INCOME), this continuous variable was converted into a dichotomous variable: 1) respondents whose total family income was 25,000 dollars or less are considered to be in poverty, and they were coded as 1; and 2) those respondents whose total family income is above 25,000 dollars were coded as 0and they are considered not in poverty. There was a total of 2,812 respondents.1, 764 respondents (71.1%) reported that their total family income was $25,000 or more (not in poverty), and 718 (28.9%) reported that their total family was income was below $25,000 (in poverty), and 330 (11.7%) respondents showed missing data for this question. The Key Independent Variable Race The key independent variable for this study is race (VAR: RACE), and this nominal variable was dichotomized as follows: 1) Black or not, 2) Other race or not (White is the comparison group). The frequency distribution for Black or not is as follows: there was a total of 2,812 respondents in this study, 377 of whom (13.4%) reported that they were Black, 2,482 respondents indicated that they were not Black, and 333 respondents failed to answer the question. The frequency distribution for Other race or not is as follows: 2812 respondents took part in the survey, and 201 persons reported that their race was Other (7, 1%), and 2,611 respondents reported that their race was not Other. Chart 1 Chart 2 Calculate Univariate Statistics. The dependent variable INCOME was converted to a dichotomous variable (in poverty or not) and it has a frequency of 2482, a mean of 0.2893, and a standard deviation of 0.45352. Most respondents in the survey had incomes that were 25,000 or more (not in poverty). The key independent variable RACE was dichotomized as follows: Black or not, and Other race or not (Whites are the comparison group). The frequency for Black or not is 2812, with a mean of 0.1341, and a standard deviation of 0.34079. The frequency for Other race or not is 2812, with a mean of 0.0715, and a standard deviation of 0.25767. AGE has a frequency of 2803, a mean of 45.96, and a standard deviation of 16.1801. RESPONDENTS SEX has a frequency of 2812, a mean of 1.54, and a standard deviation of 0.498. RS HIGHEST DEGREE has a frequency of 2811, a mean of 1.61, and a standard deviation of 1.207. RELIGION IN WHICH RAISED was dichotomized as follows: 1) Jewish or not, 2) Catholic or not, 3) Protestant or not, and 4) Other religion or not (No religion is the comparison group). Jewish or not has a frequency of 2809, a mean of 0.0228, and a standard deviation of 14924. Catholic or not has a frequency of 2801, a mean of 0.2960, and a standard deviation of 45656. Protestant or not has a frequency of 2801, a mean of 0.5598, and a standard deviation of 49650. Other religion or not has a frequency of 280, a mean of 0.0421, and a standard deviation of 20092. PARTYID was dichotomized as follows: 1) Democrat or not, 2) Independent or not, and 4) Other political party (no political affiliation is the comparison group). Democrat or not has a frequency of 2800, a mean of 0, 3425, and a standard deviation of 0.47463. Independent or not has a frequency of 2800, a mean of 0.3539, a standard deviation of 0.47827. Other political party or not has a frequency of 2800, a mean of 0.0104, and a standard deviation of 0.10126. Pearsons Correlation Analysis As hypothesized Pearsons correlation supports the premises that the total family income of Blacks, on average, is likely to fall at or below 25,000 dollars (poverty). Pearsons correlation is 0.175 (very significant); therefore we reject the null hypothesis, and accept the alternative. That is, there is a significant difference between the average total families incomes of Blacks compared to Whites. Other races appeared to earn slightly more that Whites. Pearsons correlation for Other is -0.003. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis for Others, and conclude that there is no significant difference between the average total family incomes of others as opposed to Whites. Pearsons correlation for income and other political party is -0.029, indicating a slight decrease in the number of other political party members who have a total family income of 25,000 dollars or less. Therefore, we fail to reject the null, and conclude that other political party affiliation does not significantly affect the total family income of these respondents, as opposed to Republicans. Pearsons correlation between poverty and Democrats show .064. Therefore, we reject the null, and accept the alternate hypothesis; Democrats are significantly more likely to show a family income of 25, 0000 or more a year. Democrats are less likely to have a total family income of 25,000 dollars or less. Pearsons correlation between Independent party and poverty is -0.064, which is significant, therefore we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. Independent party membership has a significant affect on poverty. That is Independent party members are more likely to have total family incomes of 25,000 dollars or less. Pearsons correlation between the Jewish religion and poverty is -.052 which is significant. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis, and accept the alternative hypothesis. We conclude by stating that respondents who are Jewish are more likely to have a totally family income that is above 25,000 dollars. Pearsons correlation for Catholics is -0.55 which is significant. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis, and conclude that Catholics are less likely to show a total family income of less than 25,000 dollars. Pearsons correlation for Protestants is -0.028 which is insignificant. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis, and reject the alternative hypothesis. We conclude that respondents who are Protestant are not likely to have incomes below 25, 0000 dollars. Pearson correlation between other religions and poverty is 0.017 which is statistically insignificant. Therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis, and reject the alternative hypothesis. Respondents who coded as having Other political affiliation are not likely to have total family incomes below 25,000 dollars. Likelihood Ratio Chi-Sq. 390.482** Nagelkerke R-Square .2093 *P

Saladin :: Essays Papers

Saladin In his De Laude Novae Militiae (1128 - 1131), Bernard of Clairvaux exhorted young Christian knights to take up the calling of spiritual chivalry and fight pagans without fear of eternal damnation since when he kills an evildoer, he is not a homicide, but ...a malicide, and it is plainly Christ's vengeance on those who work evil. Though Bernard's words served as a precursor to the Second Crusade they are important when examining the life of Saladin, for in his life and actions this man, destined to become the greatest of the aforementioned pagans, would exemplify none of the traits one would expect of a horrible infidel. Rather, one could say that, aside from religion, Saladin embodied many of the ideals held dear by the chivalric Christian warrior of the age. Saladin, or Salah al - Din, was born in 1138 into a Kurdish military family at Takrit in present - day Iraq. Saladin's origins were fodder for many Europeans chroniclers of the Crusades. The Latin Itinerarium regis Ricardi compiled in the 13th Century described Saladin as a pimp, the king of the brothels, who campaigned in the taverns, and devoted his time to gaming and the like. Far from these conjectures we now know with a fair amount of certainty that Saladin grew up at Baalbak and various other outposts where his father served as governor. In 1152 he joined his uncle in the service of sultan Nur ad- Din and by 1156 he had become his uncles deputy in the military governorship of Damascus. Saladin became a close companion of Nur ad- Din . He also accompanied his uncle on three separate expeditions to Egypt between 1164 and 1168. In 1169 Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, took over the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and became Vizier of Egypt with Saladin as chief administrator. Shirkuh died nine weeks into his rule and Saladin seized power. By 1171 Saladin had abolished the Fatimid caliphate and placed it under Nur ad-Dins rule. Nur ad-Din died in 1174 and Saladin promptly married his widow and began to establish his sway over the sultans empire. In 1175 Saladin seized Central Syria with his victory at the Battle of Hama. By 1181, with the death of Nur ad-Dins son, Saladin had become the leader of a unified Muslim state.

I.T. and Healthcare Essay -- Technology, Information Technology, Healt

Most people live in rural areas, while the medical community exists in cities. Medical facilitates are increasing the use of information technology database as a collaborative effort within the healthcare communities, on the condition that remote communities have access to the largest healthcare database and treatment information for public health solutions. Technology has shown that communication strategies are changing the way people understand and translate messages. There are no indications that imply technology reduces labor costs, in the healthcare industries. The fundamental economic theories are best used when collaborating with new technologies. As administrators the new electronic age, has brought new invention that are innovative and gives promise to a new generation. This reflects the achievement of information technology in the new generation. Technology has shown that communication strategies are changing the way people understand and translating messages. The growth of the World Wide Web has launched electronic communication assistants, and the interest in wirele...

Essay example --

"The Old Man and The Sea" is an unbelievable story of a man with struggles within nature. The simplicity of the story’s structure engages readers of all ages. How the main character overcomes his struggles and tribulation is wild, inspiring, and humanistic. The tale can easily be taken into every aspect in life situations. It is truly a classic with an unforgettable plot that leaves the reader wanting more. The fiction novel, "The Old Man and the Sea" became one of the most enduring works of Ernest Hemingway. The novel was written in 1952 and published by Simon & Schuster Inc. Hemingway, is known for writing main characters of courage and conviction. Therefore, creating roles that draw a reader in. The main character is an old Cuban fisherman, named Santiago. â€Å"Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated.† Santiago has had bad luck in catching anything in the last few months. One day Santiago sets out into the Gulf Stream, when he hooks a giant marlin. â€Å"Fish, I love you and respect you very much; but I will ki...

The Key Isues in the 1800 Presidential Election

1. What were the key issues in the 1800 presidential election? Why is it called the â€Å"Revolution of 1800? † Thomas Jefferson won the election of 1800 by a majority of 73 electoral votes to 65, and even though Adams got more popular votes, Jefferson got New York. But, even though Jefferson triumphed, in a technicality he and Aaron Burr tied for presidency. The vote, according to the Constitution, would now go to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives.Hateful of Jefferson, many wanted to vote for Burr, and the vote was deadlocked for months until Alexander Hamilton and John Adams persuaded a few House members to change their votes, knowing that if the House voted for Burr, the public outcry would doom the Federalist Party. Finally, a few changed their minds, and Jefferson was elected to the presidency. The â€Å"Revolution of 1800† was that there was a peaceful transfer of power; Federalists stepped down from office after Jefferson won and did so peacefully , though not necessarily happily and the Republicans were more of the â€Å"people’s party† compared to the Federalists. . Discuss the factors that led to the Louisiana Purchase. In 1800, Napoleon secretly induced the king of Spain to cede the Louisiana territory to France. Then, in 1802, the Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit guaranteed by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795. Such deposit privileges were vital to the frontier farmers who floated their goods down the Mississippi River to its mouth to await oceangoing vessels. These farmers talked of marching to New Orleans to violently get back what they deserved, an action that would have plunged the U. S. into war with Spain and France.In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join regular minister Robert R. Livingston to buy New Orleans and as much land to the east of the river for a total of $10 million, tops. Instead, Napoleon offered to sell New Orleans and the land west of it, Louisiana, for a bargain of $15 million, thereby abandoning his dream of a French North American empire. The decision to sell Louisiana was also because Napoleon needed cash to renew his war with Britain. The Louisiana Purchase was finalized on April 30, 1803. The Senate quickly approved the purchase with Jefferson’s urging, and the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States.This was the biggest bargain in history averaging 3 cents per acre. 6. Analyze the cause of the War of 1812. America’s reasons for entering the War of 1812 were, â€Å"Freedom of the seas†, the U. S. wanted the right to sail and trade without fear. Possibility of land, the U. S. might gain Canada or Florida. Indian issues, Americans were still upset about British guns being giving to Indians. 7. Discuss the importance of Marbury v. Madison. The Judiciary Act, passed by the Federalists in their last days of Congressional domination in 1801, packed newly created judgeships with Federalist-backing men, so as to prolong their legacy.Chief Justice John Marshall, a cousin of Jefferson, had served at Valley Forge during the war, and he had been impressed with the drawbacks of no central authority, and thus, he became a lifelong Federalist, committed to strengthening the power of the federal government. William Marbury had been one of the â€Å"midnight judges† appointed by John Adams in his last hours as president. He had been named justice of peace for D. C. , but when Secretary of State James Madison decided to shelve the position, Marbury sued for its delivery.Marshall dismissed the case, but he said that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus suggesting that the Supreme Court could determine the constitutionality of laws, judicial review. 8. Based upon the War of 1812, assess the effectiveness of the American military system. Due to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst fought wars. There was not a burning national anger, li ke there was after the Chesapeake outrage; the regular army was very bad and scattered and had old, senile generals, and the offensive strategy against Canada was especially poorly conceived.

Cross Cultural Leadership Essay

Leadership is the process of getting work done through others. A leader encourages and motivates others towards accomplishment of certain pre-defined organizational goals. The management maintains the status quo whereas the leadership is responsible for predicting fresh solutions and methodologies. The leadership is responsible for motivating people to bring out their best. The modern leader must be multicultural because corporate success, profit, and growth depend increasingly on the management of a diverse work force. Cross-cultural leadership is a term that identify the diversity of work culture, the fact that the leader (or leaders) may come from social, linguistic, ethnic, or cultural groups but work would be remain same for all. Working with people from different countries, conducting meeting, dealing with clients, entertaining, negotiating and corresponding with colleagues or clients can be a beneficial to the employee to understand the intercultural differences. Understanding intercultural difference ultimately breaks down the barrier and helps to build trust and increase good relationship which yields concrete results in terms of business success. Few key components of cross cultural leadership skill are: Attitudes towards time, Commitments, Success Status Authority Accountability Planning Negotiation Rewards Teamwork Personal boundaries and social interactions Effectively managing a multicultural business requires at least a basic knowledge of employee’s culture and traditions. Familiarity with both is essential because each has a bearing on an employee’s every day behavior. Whether we realize it or not, culture and tradition are powerful principles we always carry with us. Culture is always with people even though people are unaware of it.